Cyanamide

Flow cytometric DNA-content cell-cycle staining measures the fluorescence intensity of DNA-bound fluorochromes in single cells or nuclei to estimate DNA content distributions, allowing assignment of populations to G0/G1, S, and G2/M phases by DNA histogram deconvolution. Propidium iodide (PI) intercalates into DNA, and PI fluorescence is proportional to cellular DNA content when staining is performed under conditions that make DNA accessible and minimize non-DNA signal. Cells with G2/M DNA content are expected to show approximately twice the fluorescence intensity of G0/G1 cells, while S-phase cells occupy intermediate fluorescence values. PI-based DNA-content analysis can also detect cells with fractional DNA content, often reported as sub-G1, when DNA fragmentation and extraction during staining reduce retained DNA signal in apoptotic cells. DAPI is an alternative DNA fluorochrome for univariate DNA-content analysis, while bivariate approaches combining DNA content with proliferation

Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation assay is based on the principle that BrdU, a thymidine analog, is incorporated into newly synthesized DNA during the S phase of the cell cycle, thereby serving as a marker of DNA replication and cellular proliferation. Incorporated BrdU can be detected using anti-BrdU antibodies following DNA denaturation, enabling visualization or quantification of proliferating cells through immunochemical detection methods such as immunofluorescence or immunohistochemistry.

The CFSE (carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester) dye dilution proliferation assay is based on the covalent labeling of intracellular proteins by a cell-permeant fluorescent dye that becomes fluorescent upon intracellular ester cleavage and then is stably retained within cells. As labeled cells divide, the dye is partitioned equally between daughter cells, resulting in a stepwise halving of fluorescence intensity that can be quantified by flow cytometry to determine the number of cell divisions undergone by each cell population. This fluorescence dilution approach enables quantitative tracking of lymphocyte proliferation at the single-cell level over multiple rounds of division. CFSE-based proliferation analysis has been widely applied to measure antigen-driven lymphocyte expansion in vitro, where discrete fluorescence peaks correspond to successive cell divisions and allow reconstruction of proliferative history within heterogeneous populations.

Patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models are generated by engrafting primary human tumor tissue directly into immunodeficient mice, allowing in vivo propagation of patient tumor biology without initial in vitro adaptation. These models are used to preserve key histopathological and molecular characteristics of the original tumor and enable assessment of tumor growth dynamics and therapeutic response in a living organism. The biological readout is tumor engraftment and subsequent growth in the murine host, which reflects the ability of human tumor cells to survive, vascularize, and expand in an immunocompromised microenvironment.

Dye-dilution cell tracking assays quantify cell proliferation by covalently labeling intracellular proteins with a stable fluorescent dye that is equally partitioned between daughter cells during mitosis, resulting in stepwise halving of fluorescence intensity with each cell division as measured by flow cytometry histograms. Carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester (CFSE) is a prototypical dye that diffuses into cells, is enzymatically converted into a fluorescent compound, and then covalently binds intracellular amine groups, producing long-lived fluorescence suitable for tracking multiple rounds of division in vitro and in vivo. Successive generations of dividing cells form discrete peaks of decreasing fluorescence intensity, enabling estimation of proliferation history, precursor frequency, and division index within heterogeneous populations. Alternative dyes such as CellTrace Violet (CTV) and far-red membrane dyes (e. g. , PKH26) follow the same dilution principle but differ

Patient-derived orthotopic xenograft (PDOX) modeling implants fresh patient tumor tissue or patient-derived tumor cells into the anatomically corresponding organ or tissue site of immunodeficient mice, usually by surgical orthotopic implantation, to preserve patient tumor histology, local microenvironmental context, invasion, metastatic behavior, and treatment-response features better than subcutaneous implantation. PDOX readouts include tumor engraftment, orthotopic tumor growth, local invasion, metastasis, recurrence after resection, histologic similarity to the donor tumor, biomarker retention, molecular concordance, survival, and response or resistance to therapy. PDOX models are used for preclinical drug testing and individualized therapy evaluation, but engraftment success varies by tumor type and specimen quality.

Cell-cycle analysis by flow cytometry measures DNA content in single cells to estimate the fraction of cells in G0/G1, S, and G2/M phases. Propidium iodide intercalates into DNA, and after RNA removal with RNase, fluorescence intensity reflects cellular DNA content: 2N cells are assigned to G0/G1, cells between 2N and 4N to S phase, and 4N cells to G2/M. DNA-content analysis alone cannot reliably separate G0 from G1 or G2 from M. Ki-67 can distinguish quiescent G0 cells from cycling cells, EdU or BrdU incorporation marks active DNA synthesis in S phase, and phospho-histone H3 staining identifies mitotic cells within the 4N population.

Liver cancer can be classified into primary liver cancer and secondary liver cancer. Secondary liver cancer is the metastatic liver cancer. Primary liver cancer includes hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC) and fibrolamellar HCC, of which HCC is the most common form, accounting for approximately 90% of primary liver cancers^[1]. HCC mouse models include chemical agent-induced models, transplanted tumor models, and genetic engineered models.

Subcutaneous cell-line-derived xenograft (CDX) models are established by implanting cultured human cancer cell lines into immunodeficient mice, where the injected cells form localized tumors that can be monitored in vivo as a measure of tumorigenic potential, growth kinetics, and treatment response. These models are widely used in oncology research because they allow reproducible tumor formation and enable comparative assessment of tumor growth between different cell lines or genetic manipulations in a controlled in vivo microenvironment. Subcutaneous implantation of cancer cells in immunodeficient mice is a standard approach for evaluating tumor growth behavior and therapeutic response across multiple cancer types, including prostate, esophageal, pancreatic, and colon cancer models.

Orthotopic cell-line xenograft models involve implantation of human cancer cell lines into the anatomically corresponding organ of immunodeficient mice to reproduce tumor growth within a native microenvironment, enabling more clinically relevant tumor behavior compared with subcutaneous models. These models are widely used because orthotopic placement better recapitulates tumor progression, including invasion and metastatic spread, which are often underrepresented in heterotopic implantation systems. Compared with conventional xenografts, orthotopic implantation is described as more technically complex but provides improved simulation of tumor-microenvironment interactions and metastatic behavior, making it particularly valuable for translational oncology research. Surgical orthotopic implantation approaches have been emphasized as enabling faithful reproduction of clinical cancer features, including metastasis and disease progression patterns that align with the tumor’s organ of origi