Polysaccharides

Heparan sulfate, a complex and linear polysaccharide, exists as part of glycoproteins named heparan sulfate proteoglycans, which are expressed abundantly on the cell surface and in the extracellular matrix.

Hyaluronic acid is a biopolymer composed of repeating units of disaccharides with various applications. Hyaluronic acid is a major component of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Hyaluronic acid is synthesized at the plasma membrane. Increased hyaluronic acid levels are associated with tumor cell growth, adhesion, migration, invasion and angiogenesis in digestive cancers. Hyaluronic acid participates in tissue remodeling and rapid cell proliferation in some physiological processes including embryonic morphogenesis and wound-healing. Hyaluronic acid activates the PI3K-Akt signaling. Hyaluronic acid acts as a regulator of cancer-associated lymphangiogenesis. Hyaluronic acid also enhances cell invasion and angiogenesis by promoting proteolytic MMP-9 binding to cell surface or stimulating MMP-9 binding to cell surface. Hyaluronic acid can be used as drug delivery for sodium butyrate to improve the anti-proliferative activity on breast cancer cell line. Hyaluronic acid can be studied in joint diseases, wound healing and cancer.

Heparin is a highly sulfated glycosaminoglycan,that is widely used as an injectable anticoagulant, and has the highest negative charge density of any known biological molecule. Heparin significantly inhibits exosome-cell interactions.

D-(+)-Trehalose (α,α-Trehalose) is an orally active disaccharide, showing anti-desiccant and cryopreservative activities. D-(+)-Trehalose acts as an osmolyte, and stress protectant and helps in the storage and transport of carbon. D-(+)-Trehalose can be used as a food ingredient and pharmaceutical excipient.

Acarbose (BAY g 5421), antihyperglycemic agent, is an orally active alpha-glucosidase inhibitor (IC₅₀=11 nM). Acarbose can potentiate the hypoglycemic effects of sulfonylureas or insulin.

(25R)-26-O-β-D-Glucopyranosyl-5α-furost-20 (22)-en-3β,26-diol 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-galactopyranoside is a steroidal saponin. (25R)-26-O-β-D-Glucopyranosyl-5α-furost-20 (22)-en-3β,26-diol 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-galactopyranoside can be isolated from the fruits of Tribulus terrestris.

Rhamnolipid 4 is a rhamnolipid that can be found in Pseudomonas species.

β-Maltoside is a 2-phenylethyl glycoside. β-Maltoside resists hydrolysis by purified β-primeverosidase derived from fresh Camellia sinensis var. sinensis cv. Yabukita leaves.

Fucoidan, a biologically active polysaccharide, is an efficient inhibitor of α-amylase and α-glucosidase. Anticoagulant, antitumor, antioxidant and antisteatotic activities.

Sucrose (D-(+)-Saccharose) is a disaccharide which is composed of two monosaccharides, glucose and fructose. Sucrose can be applied in some animal models, including metabolic disease, obesity, diet on preference, and diabetes, et al.

Laminaran is an β-1-3-glucan and a typical ligand for Dectin-1 from Eisenia Bicyclis, has potent immunomodulating, radioprotective, and anticancer activities. Laminaran is made up of β (1→3)-glucan with β (1→6)-branches and can be catalyzed by enzymes such as laminarinase (EC 3.2.1.6) that breaks the β (1→3) bonds. Laminaran is a promising immune stimulatory molecule for use in cancer immunotherapy.

λ-Carrageenan is a seaweed polysaccharide which has been generally used as proinflammatory agent in the basic research. λ-Carrageenan is a potent antitumor agent.

D-(+)-Trehalose dihydrate, isolated from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, can be used as a food ingredient and pharmaceutical excipient.

Lentinan is an orally active biocompatible multifunctional polysaccharide with biological activities such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immune regulation, anti-tumor, hypoglycemic, and lipid-lowering^[1][4].

Inulin is an orally active prebiotic targeting the intestinal microbiota, selectively promoting the proliferation and activity of beneficial bacteria such as bifidobacteria and lactic acid bacteria, and playing a role in regulating the intestinal microecology. The functions of Inulin include: Fermentation by probiotics in the colon to produce short-chain fatty acids (such as butyrate and propionate), lowering the intestinal pH and inhibiting the overgrowth of harmful bacteria; Enhancing the intestinal barrier function and reducing endotoxin translocation; Directly scavenging free radicals (such as superoxide free radicals, hydroxyl free radicals) and activating antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT) to reduce oxidative stress. Inulin can also be used in the study of intestinal diseases (constipation, IBD), metabolic syndrome (diabetes, obesity) and liver damage by regulating glucose and lipid metabolism (such as reducing triglycerides, improving insulin sensitivity) and immune response (enhancing NK cell activity, inhibiting inflammatory factors)[1][2][3][4].

3'-Sialyllactose (3'-SL) sodium is a prebiotic, maintains immune homeostasis and exerts anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic effects. 3'-Sialyllactose sodium is an ordinary carbohydrate with the lowest toxicity rating, it can be used for the research of inflammation.

Mannan is an orally active polysaccharide compound that binds to the mannose receptor (MR). Mannan promotes bacterial uptake and endosomal degradation by binding to MR, thereby enhancing the production of IL-12 in immune cells. Mannan enhances ROS production. Mannan modulates immunity, inhibits Aflatoxin B₁ (HY-N6615)-induced toxicity, and reduces lipid.

Maltose is a disaccharide composed of two glucose molecules linked together. Maltose is an endogenous metabolic product in plants, yeast, or bacteria, and it participates in carbon source storage and metabolism. Maltose is a key core metabolite and main transport form in the temporary starch degradation, carbon output, and subsequent sucrose synthesis metabolism of the night chloroplast. In X. dendrorhous, maltose can act as a sugar donor and is converted into isomaltulose by α-glucosidase). Maltose can act as a osmotic agent, supporting continuous capillary ultrafiltration and preventing severe metabolic disorders.

Lactose is a β-galactoside consisting of galactose and glucose residues, the main carbohydrate in mammalian breast milk. Lactose, a macronutrient and an inducer of host innate immune responses, possesses immune modulatory functions.

Stachyose, a kind of oligosaccharides, act as a hypoglycemic agent.