Tinurilimab

Neuron-astrocyte co-culture is used to study how astrocytes regulate neuronal survival, synapse formation, dendritic morphology, neuronal activity, and disease-related neurotoxicity. Indirect “sandwich” or insert-based designs physically separate neurons and astrocytes while allowing soluble astrocyte-derived factors to affect neurons, whereas direct co-culture permits cell-contact and network-level readouts.

Cancer immunology studies how the immune system recognizes, suppresses, edits, or fails to eliminate malignant cells through tumor antigen release, antigen presentation, T-cell priming, immune trafficking, tumor-cell killing, and feedback inhibition in the tumor microenvironment. The cancer-immunity cycle links tumor antigenicity, dendritic-cell priming, CD8+ T-cell infiltration, cytotoxic function, and immune-checkpoint regulation to tumor rejection or immune escape. Immune-checkpoint pathways such as PD-1/PD-L1 and CTLA-4 suppress antitumor T-cell activity and can be therapeutically blocked, but many tumors remain resistant because of poor antigen presentation, weak T-cell infiltration, suppressive myeloid cells, regulatory T cells, and tumor-intrinsic immune-exclusion programs. Unresolved questions include which immune-cell states predict response, how tumor-intrinsic pathways exclude immune cells, how myeloid suppression limits checkpoint blockade, and which combination strategies