DQ661

By lysing cells, releasing RNA, and removing impurities such as proteins and DNA, high-purity RNA products are finally obtained. The commonly used traditional method is the guanidine isothiocyanate/phenol/chloroform method (Trizol), which is suitable for a variety of animal materials including animal tissues, microorganisms, cultured cells, etc., and most plant materials.

Western blotting (WB) is a commonly used experimental method in molecular biology, biochemistry, and immunogenetics for identifying and quantifying target proteins. It combines gel electrophoresis with immunoassay, enabling researchers to analyze protein expression, post-translational modifications, and molecular weight.

Autophagy is a process in which eukaryotic cells use lysosomes to degrade their own cytoplasmic proteins and damaged organelles under the regulation of autophagy related gene (Atg). Microtubule-associated proteins light chain 3 (LC3) is recognized as autophagy marker, which transfers from cytoplasmic LC3 (LC3-I) to membrane type (LC3-II). LC3-II/I ratio could be detected by Western Blot and fluorescence microscopy.

Lysosome and acidic-vesicle live-cell staining detects acidic intracellular compartments by using membrane-permeant acidotropic probes that accumulate in low-pH vesicles, including lysosomes, late endosomes, autolysosomes, and acidic phagosomes. LysoTracker staining is commonly used as an intensity-based readout of acidic lysosomal compartment abundance or enlargement, while acridine orange produces green fluorescence in less concentrated compartments and red fluorescence after concentration-dependent accumulation in acidic vesicular organelles. Loss or reduction of acridine-orange red signal can be used as a readout of lysosomal membrane permeabilization or reduced acidic-vesicle integrity. This protocol is designed for live cultured cells and can be adapted for fluorescence microscopy, high-content imaging, plate-reader readout, or flow cytometry when the selected literature supports the readout. Because these dyes report acidotropic accumulation rather than lysosome identity alone,

Macroautophagy is a conserved lysosome-dependent degradation pathway in which cytoplasmic material is sequestered into double-membrane autophagosomes and delivered to lysosomes for degradation and recycling. The pathway supports cellular homeostasis during nutrient limitation, organelle stress, protein-aggregate accumulation, infection, differentiation, and tissue remodeling by coupling cargo sequestration, autophagosome maturation, lysosomal fusion, and degradation of cargo-derived macromolecules. The core molecular sequence includes initiation by nutrient- and stress-regulated autophagy machinery, autophagosome nucleation, LC3/ATG8-family conjugation to autophagosomal membranes, cargo selection through receptors such as SQSTM1/p62, autophagosome-lysosome fusion, and lysosomal degradation. LC3 was identified as a mammalian homolog of yeast Atg8 that localizes to autophagosomal membranes after processing, and p62/SQSTM1 was shown to connect ubiquitinated cargo with autophagic degradati

Recombinant protein expression in Escherichia coli followed by purification of a His-tagged soluble protein by immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC), with optional MBP fusion and TEV tag removal when the construct includes these elements. The biological readout is production of the encoded target protein, detected as an inducible band at the expected molecular mass by SDS-PAGE and quantified by total protein assay or chromatographic absorbance; the purification readout is enrichment of the target protein in elution fractions after selective binding of polyhistidine residues to immobilized Ni2+/metal-chelate resin and elution by imidazole-containing buffer. Expression is driven by an inducible bacterial expression system, commonly T7/lac-based, in which IPTG or lactose/auto-induction activates transcription and translation of the cloned gene; lower induction temperature, lower inducer concentration, induction timing, and solubility-enhancing fusion tags can influence the frac