Exemestane-¹³C₃

Endocrine diseases often arise from disrupted hormone production, hormone signaling, or target-tissue responsiveness; for diabetes-focused endocrine disease models, insulin signaling regulates glucose uptake, hepatic glucose output, lipid metabolism, and β-cell compensation. Type 2 diabetes develops through interacting defects in insulin resistance, β-cell dysfunction, adipose inflammation, hepatic glucose overproduction, altered incretin signaling, and ectopic lipid metabolism. A major unresolved question is whether endocrine dysfunction is driven primarily by target-tissue insulin resistance, intrinsic β-cell failure, immune/inflammatory stress, or combined multi-organ failure that differs by disease stage.

Breast cancer is a heterogeneous cancer, and it has been distinguished into four subtypes: luminal A, luminal B, HER2-positive and basal-like. Molecular mutations, epigenetic alterations, hormone exposure and immune microenvironment are related to the progression of breast cancer.